THE ROLE OF GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS ON THE DIFFUSION OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN BRAZIL

Responsabilidade Social Corporativa (RSC) tem sido representada na literatura produzida em economias desenvolvidas como abordagem de iniciativas voluntárias, concebida, implementada e avaliada pelas empresas, para compensar impactos negativos na comunidade. A ausência de consenso nesta literatura sobre o que é RSC, as suspeitas históricas em economias emergentes e em desenvolvimento no comportamento e interesses de grandes corporações não impediu a aceitação e difusão dos discursos e práticas de RSC no Brasil. Analistas críticos das economias desenvolvidas argumentam que a elevada importância de RSC no mundo contemporâneo pode ser explicada pelo crescente poder das grandes corporações, a influência e alcance extraordinário da mídia, a ampliação transnacional das atividades de lobby, a expansão das estratégias de montagem e produção offshore, e o elevado número de escândalos corporativos dentro da era da globalização. Os autores deste artigo argumentam que o poder das Organizações Globais de Desenvolvimento (OGD), tais como o Banco Mundial e as Nações Unidas, é uma questão crítica para a explicação deste acelerado processo de legitimação e difusão de discursos e práticas de RSC nas economias emergentes. Este artigo demonstra que o amplo e acelerado processo de difusão e legitimação de RSC no Brasil é explicado pela liberalização dos mercados em um ritmo mais acelerado nas economias em desenvolvimento do que nas economias desenvolvidas como resultado das fortes pressões exercidas pelas OGD, em aliança com grandes corporações e governos das economias desenvolvidas, para a adoção de ‘programas de ajustamento estruturais’ ou ‘novo modelo econômico’. Vários relatórios argumentam que desenvolvimento está sendo almejado pelas corporações transnacionais em quase todos os cantos do mundo na era da globalização, principalmente pelas OGD, tais como Banco Mundial e Nações Unidas. Um exemplo é o Programa Global Compact implementado pelas Nações Unidas.Palavras-chave: responsabilidade social corporativa, organizações globais de desenvolvimento, Brasil.AbstractCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been widely portrayed in the literature produced in developed economies as a framework of voluntary initiatives, conceived, implemented and evaluated by management, to counter negative impacts on the community. The lack of consensus in this literature on what CSR is about, the historical suspicions in emerging and developing economies on the behaviour and interests of large corporations have not impeded the acceptance and diffusion of CSR discourses and practices in Brazil. Critical analysts from developed economies argue that the high importance of CSR in the contemporaneous world can be explained by the increasing power of large corporations, the extraordinary influence and reach of the media, the enlargement of transnational lobbying activities, the spread of offshore strategies of assembly and production, and the increasing number of corporate scandals within the era of globalization. The authors of this paper argue that the power of Global Development Organizations (GDOs), such as the World Bank and the United Nations, is a critical issue for the explanation of such accelerated process of legitimation and diffusion of CSR discourses and practices in emerging economies. This paper shows that the wide and accelerated process of diffusion and legitimation of CSR in Brazil is explained by the fact that markets were liberalized in a more accelerated pace in developing economies than in developed economies as a result of the strong pressures put by GDOs, in alliance with large corporations and governments from developed economies, to the adoption of ‘structural adjustment programmes’ or ‘new economic model’. Several reports argue that development is being pursued by transnational corporations in almost every corner of the world in the era of globalization, as much as by GDOs, such as United Nations and World Bank. A sound example is the Global Compact program implemented by the United Nations.Keywords: Corporate Social Responsibility; Global Development Organizations; Brazil.


INTRODUCTION
The high status achieved by Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in emerging economies, such as Brazil, is a phenomenon that deserves a critical analysis from a perspective that goes beyond the neoliberal discourse. Within the era of economic globalization, corporations from developed economies have been under pressure to take responsibility, for instance, for the working conditions of their suppliers and employees in developing and emerging economies. Moreover, they have been pushed to foster local development and reduce poverty in those economies.
CSR has been widely portrayed in the literature produced in developed economies as a framework of voluntary initiatives, conceived, implemented and evaluated by management, to counter negative impacts on the community. CSR is generally seen to encompass the responsibilities of companies vis-à-vis society (legal, ethical, social, and environmental) in addition to the traditional economic responsibilities.
Two underlying assumptions in this literature, in accordance with the neoliberal discourse, may explain the successful performance of CSR in Brazil and other developing economies in the 1990s: (a) corporations are expected to discipline, regulate and socialize themselves, and (b) corporations are expected to assume responsibilities that the state is not capable of assuming.
The lack of consensus in the literature produced in developed economies on what CSR is about and the historical suspicions in emerging and developing economies on the behaviour and interests of large corporations have not impeded the acceptance and diffusion of CSR discourses and practices in Brazil and other emerging economies. Critical analysts from developed economies argue that the high importance of CSR in the contemporaneous world can be explained by the increasing power of large corporations, the extraordinary influence and reach of the media, the enlargement of transnational lobbying activities, the spread of offshore strategies of assembly and production, and the increasing number of corporate scandals within the era of globalization (Jenkins, 2005;Banerjee, 2006;Levy, 2008). This paper shows that those arguments do not explain with the necessary accuracy the accelerated process of acceptance, diffusion and legitimation of CSR discourses and practices in emerging economies such as Brazil. The authors of this paper argue that the power of Global Development Organizations (GDOs), such as the World Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the United Nations (and its agencies such as United Nations Conference on Trade and Development -UNCTAD), is a critical issue for the explanation of such accelerated process of legitimation and diffusion of CSR discourses and practices in those economies. Besides, the power of such organizations help explain why Critical Management Studies (CMS) researchers who pointed out the rhetorical feature of CSR have not problematised the influence of GDOs over CSR discourses and practices and, in more general terms, over academic discourses and practices in general.
On their turn CMS researchers might conclude that such mismatch is explained by the ideological and oppressive feature of the academic knowledge produced by the field of Management (Alvesson, & Willmott, 1996;Shrivastava, 1986). CMS researchers who embrace a postcolonial perspective might argue that such mismatch is explained by the imposition of 'false' discourses produced in developed economies on less developed economies.
This paper shows that the wide and accelerated process of diffusion and legitimation of CSR in Brazil is explained by the fact that markets were liberalized in a more accelerated pace in developing economies than in developed economies as a result of the strong pressures put by GDOs, in alliance with large corporations and governments from developed economies, to the adoption of 'structural adjustment programmes' or 'new economic model' (Mortimore, 2000).
In specific terms this paper shows that CSR is a very interesting case for a critical analysis of the influence of GDOs. Consequently, it recognises the political power of large corporations (Stern, & Barkey, 1996;Barley, 2007) and, the political power of GDOs (Stone, 2004;Cooke, 2004;St. Clair, 2006;Banerjee, & Linstead, 2001).
Actually, the strategies of large corporations evolved from a focus on competitive advantage in the 1980s toward a focus on sustainable competitive advantage in the early 1990s and, more recently, toward a focus on development (global development, international development and regional development). Several reports argue that development is being pursued by transnational corporations in almost every corner of the world in the era of globalization, as much as by GDO, such as the United Nations, OECD and the WB. A sound example is the Global Compact program implemented by the United Nations (Brugmann, & Prahalad, 2007) 4 .

DEFINITION OF CSR
The wide variety of CSR definitions in the literature produced in developed economies (Margolis, & Walsh, 2003) makes particularly difficult a precise understanding of what CSR 4 McKinsey analysts describe the Social Compact Program as a "global movement that aims to encourage businesses to pay closer attention to their social impact has gained momentum in recent years. It received a boost in 2000, when the United Nations got involved: Secretary-General Kofi Annan launched the Global Compact, a voluntary association that asks corporate participants to uphold ten principles relating to human rights, labor, the environment, and noncorrupt business conduct. Ever since, the Global Compact has pursued this agenda by publishing universal guidelines on corporate social responsibility and creating a network that companies, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), labor groups, and UN agencies can use to share ideas about how to create better corporate citizens." (Blair, Bugg-Levine, & Rippin, 2004). See details at the UN website (http://www.unglobalcompact.org/, accessed April 03, 2008). is about. This picture is particularly more problematic in emerging and developing economies. What deserves mentioning, especially in developing and emerging economies, is that CSR is not a synonymous to pure philanthropy or mere wilfulness as it used to be in the 1960s and 1970s. Several corporations around the world have transformed CSR into a strategic issue within the era of globalization (see Prahalad, & Hart, 2002;Porter, & Kramer, 2006;Brugmann, & Prahalad, 2007). Their CSR strategies have been heavily supported by GDOs, such as the WB, the United Nations and the IMF.
The enlarged scope of corporate strategy within the era of globalization makes strategy practices and discourses closer to higher order objectives such as regional, local or global development than to traditional objectives such as profits and competitive advantage. A key underlying reason for such transformation is that the traditional distance between corporations and governments has diminished in a dramatic fashion in the last two decades due to the liberalization of markets, especially in developing and emerging economies (Streeten, 2005). This helps explain why powerful stakeholders, such as GDOs, have an increasing stake on the strategies undertaken by large corporations.
CSR is generally seen to encompass the responsibilities of companies vis-à-vis society (legal, ethical, social, and environmental) in addition to the traditional economic responsibilities (Carroll, 1999). In accordance with the definition(s) of strategy they have been used to reproduce in their academic discourses and practices most researchers argue that there remain doubts on the extent to which CSR actually contributes to the strategic performance of large companies. Strategic management gurus (such as Michael Porter and Carl Prahalad) are the ones who embraced the argument that CSR means strategy.
Corporations pursue global strategies and operate in global industries. In spite of the neoliberal discourse that corporations operate in free markets around the world the fact is that most of the markets are regulated. The regulations governing the operations of corporations are often national or regional. Regulatory heterogeneity, especially in developing and emerging economies, demands matching complexity in the strategies and operations of those companies. This explains why corporations from developed economies pursue convergence instead: "just as convergence in tastes worldwide creates opportunities for multinational corporations to produce globally standardized products, so too convergence of regulations allow multinational corporations to adopt globally standardized methods of operation, which can lower costs and reduce policy uncertainty" (Ramamurti, 2005, p. 343).
The pursuit of convergence within the era of globalization explains the importance of the dissemination of certain strategy discourses -especially with the material and institutional support of GDOs. As a guru, academic and advisor of transnational companies and governments, especially in developing and emerging economies, Michael Porter embraced the argument that CSR means strategy. He argued that, for the sake of the common good (actually he does not differentiate 'public good' and 'common good'), business companies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) must start working together through the deployment of CSR strategies rather than keep fighting as enemies (Porter & Kramer, 2006).
Another renowned guru, Carl Prahalad, mobilized the same discourse. In accordance with the neoliberal discourse Prahalad states that for the sake of common good, especially in emerging and developing economies, corporations from developed economies and social activists should foster cooperation: "the liberalization of markets is forcing executives and social activists to work together (…) They are developing new business models that will transform organizations and the lives of poor people everywhere" (Brugmann, & Prahalad, 2007, p. 80).
The literature in the field of Business & Society (B&S) points out the costs and limitations of CSR that have been neglected by CSR strategy discourses. Drawing upon the neoliberal discourse B&S authors put into question the extent to which large corporations are trustworthy in ethical or moral terms. Some authors go a little further and argue that a key problem is that CSR has been grounded on the notions of citizenship, voluntarism and selfregulation, at expense of the notion of State regulation. Vogel (2005), for example, argues that if business is to do more, government will have to prescribe conduct.
This debate is grounded on the ideological discourse which separates states and markets. In other words it reproduces the classical view of the role of business in society, which is based on the rationale that the free enterprise is the best means of achieving the efficient use of society's resources and maximizing social welfare. Muller (2006, p. 196) states that, "paradoxically, proactive CSR strategies among autonomous subsidiaries appear to be predominantly in accordance with home-country and international policies, despite their nonbidding character, instead of tailored to the host-country context." Accordingly, this paper sustains the argument that if we wish to discover the 'truth' of CSR strategy we should "take seriously the agency of corporate and state actors in privileging and protecting economic and political advantage" (Levy et al., 2003, p. 100). We argue that a way of undertaking such task is by taking seriously the agency of GDOs, in alliance with corporations and governments from developed economies, in pushing the legitimation and diffusion of CSR discourses and practices in developing and emerging economies.

GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS: REVEALING A HIDDEN 'STAKEHOLDER'
A first key reason for the widespread deployment of CSR strategies in developing and emerging economies is the political, economic and ideological power of GDOs in those contexts (see George, 1997). A few authors in the CSR literature produced in developed economies who recognise the importance of GDOs take those organizations as one of the many 'stakeholders' to be taken into account by business organizations. In other words they give the same degree of importance to every stakeholder. Customers, suppliers, employees and GDOs have the same weight in CSR programmes and strategies (Burke & Logsdon, 1996). Such standpoint does not fit the argument that the WB, for instance, is a major global actor as much as a major global knowledge 5 actor -i.e., "a transnational expertised state-like institution that sets the scene for both global politics and global knowledge" (St. Clair, 2006, p. 77).
In spite of the criticisms on the actual role of business in society, international organizations such as IMF, World Trade Organization (WTO), OECD, UNCTAD and the United Nations defend the positive contribution of business companies to combat poverty and other social problems in emerging and developing economies (see Kolk & Van Tulder, 2006;Prieto-Carón, Lund-Thomsen, Chan, Muro, & Bhushan, 2006).
From a "growth at all costs" approach of the 1950s and 1960s, the WB's rhetoric, for instance, moved toward the mission of "fighting poverty by stimulating free market democracy" (Banerjee, 2006). Even though its main focus was on local business, the Millennium Development Goals 6 , which include the objective to halve the income poverty by 2015, refers to a 'global partnership for development' in which there is a key role for multinationals corporations (as states by the United Nations Development Program, according to Banerjee, 2006). Accordingly, GDOs portray developing and emerging economies as obstacles for the purpose of pursuing the corresponding 'human face' to capitalism in their documents and policies (see Dunning, 2006, for the idea of a morally responsible capitalism). They portray local government as the main problem and large corporations as the legitimate leaders of such 'global strategy'. More specifically they argue that corporations are capable of making the market economy work in developing economies even though it is very different from what we can see in developed economies.
The market economy is described by GDOs and by the strategic management literature as a key requisite for the alleviation of social problems. However, in practice, GDOs, in alliance with large corporations and governments from developed economies, do not follow the principles of the market economy they prescribe (Cowling, & Tomlison, 2005). A major problem is that market economy has been taken as synonymous to democracy in the United States (US) and also as the main means to development in spite of all the contrary evidences (Barley, 2007). The literature produced by GDOs and the official documents disseminated in developing and emerging economies state that CSR strategies enable large corporations to provide sustainable solutions not only to social problems but also to the development of emerging and developing regions (Fox, 2004;Prieto-Carón, Lund-Thomsen, Chan, Muro, & Bhushan, 2006).
It is clear then that GDOs could not be taken as a 'mere stakeholder' if we want to understand the strategic status of CSR in developing and emerging economies. Moreover many analysts have shown that GDOs take the side of developed economies at expense of developing and emerging economies. Dolowitz argues that "one of the reasons international organizations develop and publish benchmarks and league tables is to place political leaders and national political systems under pressure to engage in policy transfer" (2006, p. 270).
Correspondingly, one of the main strategies undertaken by GDOs within the era of globalization has been the construction and dissemination of common agendas, policies and ideas around the world. These strategies are particularly powerful for combining discursive, material and ideological resources. Emerging and developing economies are key targets for those strategies undertaken by GDOs.
International governing organizations, such as the OECD, G-7, IMF and the UN and its various agencies, are increasingly playing a role in the spread of ideas, programs and institutions around the globe. These organizations influence national policy-makers directly, through their policies and loan conditions, and indirectly, through the information and policies spread at their conferences and reports (Dolowitz, & Marsh, 2000, p. 11). As mentioned before, the role of GDOs helps to explain the accelerated process of legitimation and diffusion of CSR discourses and practices in emerging and developing economies.

GOING BEYOND THE NEOLIBERAL DISCOURSE
The main theory of globalization, which reproduces the basic tenets of the neoliberal discourse (see McGrew, 2000 andEl-Ojeili, &Hayden, 2006), is grounded on the principle of free market. In other words it draws upon the theory of neoclassical economics. In response, some critical authors have argued that the key problem within the era of globalization is that large corporations became excessively powerful. From the standpoint of those authors, government and NGOs should deter the power of large corporations. These apparently opposite sides are misleading because both reproduce the ideological discourses that separate state and market. More specifically, those arguments ignore the key differences between 'neoliberalism as theory' and 'neoliberalism in practice' (Thomas, 2007).
Neoliberalism is, in reality, the global trend towards the privatisation of the means of production, and the selective liberalization of trade, investment, labour and finance. 'Neoliberalism' simply denotes what is actually happening, and it is a fundamental and commonplace mistake to equate it with the well established and respectable theory of 'neoclassical economics' (…).
[It] is a system of complex historical interactions between the IFIS (international finance institutions, G-7 governments, and transnational corporation (TNC) lobbyists (Thomas, 2007, p. 50). Accordingly, both sides neglect the arguments that GDOs are state-like institutions (St. Clair, 2006) and that "the corporation in all its forms are ultimately a creature of the state" (Preston, 2005, p. 81). More specifically and accordingly both sides neglect the roles played by GDOs in developing and emerging economies. The following passage reinforces the argument that GDOs and large corporations from developed economies took CSR as an important colonization resource within the era of globalization. A major target has been the developing economies, especially the emerging ones.
Globalization … is constructed by relationships of power, domination and subordination. Historically, control over markets and raw materials often involved the use of military power as was prevalent during colonial times. Thus, globalization has its historical roots in the modern era where military strength secured the global control of raw materials, which, through industrialization, enabled the creation and control of world markets sustaining competitive and competitive advantage of the industrialized countries. Today, international institutions and transnational corporations are writing the rules of globalization. Global political exchanges often involve coercion (the various trade embargos orchestrated by western powers), surveillance (as evidenced by several World Bank and IMF policies), legitimacy (as offered by the World Trade Organization), and authority (granting of 'most favoured nation' by the United States) (Banerjee & Linstead, 2001, p. 689). CSR is also called 'stakeholder capitalism' in the US. Its underlying message is that business corporations should take the position of the state. Henderson describes CSR as a doctrine which holds that businesses embrace the notion of 'corporate citizenship' in order to work in close conjunction with a range of different 'stakeholders' to further the goal of 'sustainable development' (Henderson, 2001, p. vii) and does not make clear what CSR is about in political terms (see CSR regimes in Tulder, & Zwart, 2006).
The CSR discourse is obviously more appealing and problematic in developing and emerging countries than in developed countries for three main reasons. The first is the structure of the international division of labour and poverty (Jenkins, 2005). Second, the more active influence of GDOs, due to historical financial-monetary vulnerabilities, in developing and emerging countries. Third, the neocolonial feature of the knowledge produced by the fields of Management and Organization Studies in developed economies (Prasad, 2003). This paper agrees with those who argue that researchers in emerging countries should be concerned with the ideological or ideational underpinnings of CSR (Prieto-Carón, Lund-Thomsen, Chan, Muro, & Bhushan., 2006, p. 979). From a postcolonialism standpoint which takes into account discursive, material and ideological resources (Cooke, 2004) a critical concern in developing and emerging economies is that corporations' voluntary initiatives may have mandatory aspects and national regulatory frameworks may incorporate the use of voluntary instruments (Graham, & Woods, 2006). Actually, ruling the legal frameworks and regulatory regimes in developing economies has been described as a key strategic objective of multinational corporations (MNCs) within the era of globalization (Shamir, 2004).
Developing economies have been portrayed in the business literature 7 as plagued with the increasing problem of human misery as if GDOs and large corporations themselves were not to blame. As a result MNCs were portrayed by management and organization academics, as much as by some political leaders and NGOs, as agents that should fight poverty, hunger and social injustice in developing regions. Some authors argue that MNCs might act in the same fashion as not-for-profit organizations as Oxfam (Margolis, & Walsh, 2003).
Drawing on ideas, agendas and policies put forward by GDOs, the strategy literature on CSR reproduces in their discourses a sort of 'all or nothing' solution to capitalism. Emerging economies have been portrayed in developed countries as countries with serious social and political problems. Those problems could not be sorted out without the help of the strategies undertaken by MNCs as governments in emerging countries are described as incompetent, ineffective and corrupt. Without an economic intervention of MNCs and GDOs in those countries certain problems, such as misery and poverty, would escalate and become global. More specifically, without the 'voluntary' intervention of MNCs, private national matters would become common global disasters. These global disasters would escalate and lead to the disruption of capitalism (Sklair, 2001 andCowlinson, &Tomlison, 2005, refer to social and ecological crises).
Other corresponding higher-order issues explain why emerging economies have become a key target for GDOs and also for different literatures produced in the US. Key financial institutions and GDOs have pictured emerging economies as capable of challenging the US dominance within the international context (Wilson, & Purushothaman, 2003). Influential institutions in the US argue that emerging economies should collaborate with the US rather than to oppose it (Boyer, & Truman, 2005). The conflict between emerging economies and the US could lead the world to a scenario of disruption marked by the global spread and strengthening of terrorism and war. Such higher-order standpoint is reproduced in the CSR literature produced in the US, as follows: Consider this bleak vision of the world 15 years from now (...). Terrorism remains a constant threat, diverting significant public and private resources to security concerns. Opposition to the global market system intensifies.
Multinational companies find it difficult to expand, and many become risk averse, slowing investment and pulling back from emerging markets. Now consider this much brighter scenario: Driven by private investment and widespread entrepreneurial activity, the economies of developing regions grow vigorously, creating jobs and wealth and bringing hundreds of millions of new consumers into the global marketplace every year. China, India, Brazil, and, gradually South Africa became new engines of global economic growth, promoting prosperity around the world. The resulting decrease in poverty produces a range of social benefits, helping to stabilize many developing regions and reduce civil and cross-border conflicts. The threat of terrorism and war recedes. Multinational companies expand rapidly in an era of intense innovation and competition. (Prahalad, & Hammond, 2002, p. 48). CSR strategies in emerging economies means, in the words of two of the most prominent authors in the US, "lifting billions of people out of poverty and desperation, averting the social decay, political chaos, terrorism, and environmental meltdown that is certain to continue if the gap between rich and poor countries continues to widen" (Prahalad, & Hart, 2002, p. 3). In the words of Michael Porter, MNCs are expected to play the role that both governments and NGOs have failed to undertake in emerging and developing economies.
By providing jobs, investing capital, purchasing goods, and doing business every day, corporations have a profound and positive influence on society. The most important thing a corporation can do for society, and for any community, is contribute to a prosperous economy. Governments and NGOs often forget this basic truth. When developing countries distort rules and incentives for business, for example, they penalize productive companies. Such countries are doomed to poverty, low wages, and selling off their natural resources. Corporations have the know-how and resources to change this state of affairs, not only in the developing world but also in economically disadvantaged communities in advanced economies. (Porter, & Kramer, 2006, pp. 91-92). MNCs have been portrayed in the CSR literature as capable to create the free market (for and on behalf of the poor) and alleviate social problems. In other words MNCs would fulfil in the contemporaneous world the WB's historical argument that market plays a central role in achieving social well-being.
(...) the Bank has shown over the 1990s a willingness to develop its understanding of what constitutes poverty and how it can be eliminated. During the writing of the 2000 World Development Report, attempts were made to balance the Bank's longstanding emphasis on economic growth and the central role of free markets in achieving it, with a new emphasis on the need to empower the poor and to institute government controls on capital inflows where they might be necessary to temper the volatility of capital flows (Kirby, 2002, p. 199). In sum, the WB helped establish the worldwide understanding that poverty is not the privilege of some countries or regions. Poverty, as much as terrorism and war, affects all.

THE POWER OF CSR DISCOURSES IN DEVELOPING AND EMERGING ECONOMIES
A key reason for the extraordinary trajectory of the CSR literature in developing and emerging economies is the demise of debates on the role of states and governments as a result of the emergence of concerns with governance within the era of globalization. The massive production and dissemination of pro-market and liberalizing ideas (Reed, 2002) was accompanied by dominant discourses in which the elusive notion of stakeholders -the socalled 'stakeholderism' (Banerjee, 2006) -replaced the notion of communities 8 .
CSR discourses produced in developed economies often disregard the debates about the negative impact of both GDOs and large corporations on poverty and other social issues (Rondinelli, 2003;Banerjee & Linstead, 2001;Cowling, & Tomlinson, 2005). They also disregard the fact that, in practice, the strategies of those large corporations help marginalize communities even further (Banerjee, 2006), especially in developing economies (Reed, 2002;Pristo-Carrón et al., 2006).
Conventional regime theory tends to ignore the contribution of non-state actors to the management of cross-border issues. The concept of governance, on the contrary, is frequently used to convey the idea that public actors have no monopoly over the resolution of public matters and that they increasingly contribute with other actors (see Ronit, 2001) in various stages of the policy-making process (Held, & Koenig-Archibugi, 2003, p.321).
Privatization of state-owned organizations and market-driven reforms of the state that were undertaken in several countries in the era of globalization, especially in developing and emerging economies (Farazmand, 2001), and some of the resulting reactions against it gave the material and ideological support to the construction and diffusion of the literature focused on 'social matters'.
In parallel, the political debate between 'private goods' and 'public goods' was displaced by the idea of 'common goods'. The emphasis given to social matters and common goods in the CSR literature produced in developed economies support the misleading 'equal importance' thesis -i.e., that in world politics states have been joined by other actors that are 'equally important' (Rosenau, 1997, p.187).
The emergence of concerns with governance within the era of globalization helps explain why CSR discourses have been transformed into a strategic issue by large corporations and GDOs and why they achieved an extraordinary trajectory of legitimation and acceptance in developing and emerging economies. The passage below illustrates the power of such discourse: U.S. companies are improving living conditions in Latin America every day and in a variety of ways. They promote ethical and responsible business behavior, market-oriented business practices, respect for the rule of law, and volunteerism and community activism. They also set high environmental, health and safety standards in their Latin American operations and encourage local suppliers to adopt similar practices. Compared to employees in local companies, their employees enjoy competitive to superior compensation, benefits and training. Finally, these companies deliver advanced technologies that improve the quality of life and promote sustainable economic development. In short, by exporting to Latin America not only their products and services, but also their principles, high labor and environmental standards and technologies, U.S. companies are improving the standard of living in Latin America. (Business Roundtable, 2007, p. 1). The increasing power of large corporations and GDOs within the era of economic globalization pushed the worldwide diffusion of the idea of stakeholder and corresponding theories. The resulting democratic picture is particularly problematic, especially in developing and emerging countries (but not only in those economies, as pointed out in Barley, 2007), among other reasons because governments of developed economies do not have (grounded on international law) the power to intervene in domestic issues in developing and emerging economies.
The contribution of governments of developing and emerging economies and NGOs to global governance is still limited vis-à-vis the 'equal importance' thesis. Large corporations and GDOs (such as IMF, WB and WTO) participate actively in the international policymaking processes and together represent the major interests of developed economies. In the end the corresponding "transnational regimes overlap with and sometimes are functional equivalents of the international regimes established by governments" (Held, & Koenig-Archibugi, 2003, p. 323).
The alliances between corporations, GDOs and governments from developed economies help explain why in developing economies public policy making is characterised by extremely serious asymmetries, as pointed out in the following passage: On the one hand, individual countries find it increasingly impossible or undesirable to tame the activities of MNCs. Poor or impoverished countries, often in desperate need to attract direct foreign investment, are reluctant to introduce legal measures (e.g., minimum wage requirements, child labor prohibitions, health and safety standards, environmental protections, collective bargaining rights, etc.) that may deter MNCs from investing or that may cause MNCs to relocate their production sites. Moreover, MNCs are in a position to effectively escape local jurisdictions by playing one legal system against the other, by taking advantage of local legal systems ill-adapted for effective corporate regulation, and by moving production sites and steering financial investments to places where local laws are most hospitable to them. (Shamir, 2004, p. 672).

THE POWER OF CSR DISCOURSES IN THE US
In the US stakeholder theorists argue that government intervention becomes unnecessary as the "stakeholder principles are implemented throughout corporate America" (Buchholz, & Rosenthal, 2004, p.144). The suppression of the state in those discourses reproduces the ideological separation of state and market. This dominant standpoint in the US illustrates the argument made by postcolonial authors who point out that 'colonizers' are affected by the 'colonizing discourses' (see Prasad, 2003). This state of things helps explain why CSR has been transformed into a major topic in the literature produced in the US and why it has been supported and used by GDOs and corporations in developing and emerging economies within the era of globalization.
Drawing upon a perspective that he calls ''imperialistic', Charles Perrow challenges the centrality given to large 'organizations' by the literature produced in the US. In explaining his 'imperialistic' perspective he points out that the key problem is that in the US "large organizations have absorbed society" (1994, p.726). More specifically, he argues: (…) that the appearance of large organizations in the United States makes organizations the key phenomenon of our time, and thus politics, social class, economics, technology, religion, the family, and even social psychology take on the character of dependent variables.
[…] Politics changes drastically when large organizations appear. Politicians come from them, work through them, and are beholden to them.
[…] By 'large organizations absorbing society' I mean that activities that once were performed by relatively autonomous and usually small informal groups (e.g., family, neighborhood) and small autonomous organizations (small businesses, local government, local church) are now performed by large bureaucracies. (Perrow, 1994, pp.725-726).
The literature produced in the US contributes to the spread of the idea that 'social matters' are not 'public matters' in the sense taken by researchers closer to the fields of public administration and public policy and that 'common goods' are more in the hands of corporations than in the hands of government (see Farazmand, 2001). From the standpoint of those researchers, state and governments should not administer 'public matters' such as poverty. In the dominant CSR literature, however, states and governments are portrayed as partners of large corporations. In the contemporaneous literature produced in the US, states and governments are portrayed as subordinate to large corporations, especially in developing economies.
With the disappearance of the fear that communism would spread in the so-called Third World, the US State Department created a new argument to increase its budget: supporting US businesses. As a result the 1990s saw not only change in the interests of the State Department, the creation of new institutions to support US business abroad -such as the Advocacy Center -, and shifting roles for long-existing ones -as the Department of Commerce -, but during this period "US laws were also strengthened to protect US property overseas and even to extend the definition of US property" (Wells, 2005, p. 442).
Drawing upon a postcolonialism standpoint which takes into account not only discursive but also material issues (Pan, 2008), the authors of this paper argues that a critical concern in developing and emerging economies is that corporations' voluntary initiatives tend to have mandatory aspects and national regulatory frameworks tend to incorporate the use of voluntary instruments (Graham and Woods, 2006). Actually, ruling the legal frameworks and regulatory regimes in developing economies has been described as a key strategic objective of MNCs within the era of globalization (Shamir, 2004).
Authors in corporate social strategy argue that "poverty reduction requires systemic change, and MNCs are the world's most efficient and sustainable engines of change (…) MNCs have the unmatched power and competence to reduce global poverty" (Lodge, & Wilson, 2006, pp.19-21). They state that the superiority of MNCs is even more relevant in developing and emerging economies, in accordance with policies, agendas and ideas of GDOs. More specifically, they point out that both states and governments in less privileged economies are neither capable nor trustworthy.

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CONCLUDING COMMENTS The critical perspective developed in this paper aimed to go beyond the neoliberal discourses that inform both mainstream and critical management researchers. Such critical perspective from an emerging economy seems to be relevant not only because of the disquieting dominance of the US literature in Latin America (Ibarra-Colado, 2006) and other regions, and the privilege given to large companies and US governance preferences by such literature (Hinnigs, & Greenwood, 2002;Clegg, 2002;Bartunek, 2002;Clark, & Rowlinson, 2004), but also because it shows that GDOs play a key role in the international dissemination of powerful strategy discourses such as CSR.
Drawing upon the notion of stakeholder this paper argues that this mismatch can be explained by the increasing influence of GDOs -in discursive, material and ideological terms. Firm stakeholders are defined in the specialized literature as those constituents that have an interest, or 'stake', in their relationships with a given firm. Correspondingly, knowledge stakeholders are defined in this paper as those constituents that have an interest, or 'stake', in their relationships with knowledge (Strange, 1994).
Based on a critical perspective that goes beyond the state-market dichotomy, which is typically used by both mainstream and critical researchers, GDOs are portrayed in this paper as a sort of powerful knowledge stakeholder that is capable to mobilize, from the vantage point of developed economies, the interests of the states and markets. This helps explain why GDOs have been overlooked by both mainstream and critical researchers in the field of Management.
This resulting analysis illustrates in a particular way, from the perspective of developing and emerging economies, the argument that knowledge as a key resource is not free of politics (and power) nor is politics (and power) independent of knowledge (St. Clair, 2006).
As a strategy discourse mobilized by GDOs, corporation and government from developed economies, CSR is powerful because, as pointed out by some critical researchers, it has the power of concealing the 'truth of strategy'. From such standpoint, the mismatch between the literature and corporations in developed economies and the extraordinary trajectory of CSR in Brazil and other developing/emerging economies are explained by a collective interest -led by GDOs, in alliance with corporations and governments from developed economies -of pursuing convergence in global terms and also avoiding that researchers and other social actors get access to what strategy and knowledge are about within the era of economic globalization.
In the end we stress the importance of further collaboration between researchers from the so-called developed and developing economies to foster knowledge alliances that could attenuate the extraordinary power of GDOs. A key issue to be taken into account is the influence of GDOs over the field of Management in a time in which development has become a central issue for large corporations.
The critical standpoint developed in this paper, aimed at understanding the extraordinary trajectory of CSR discourses and practices in developing and emerging economies, should be fostered by researchers not only these countries but also in developed economies. This paper suggests that such argument is even more important in the US given the extraordinary power